True to our native land, p.64
True to Our Native Land, page 64
Paul’s belief that Christian ministry is associated with self-sacrifice and suffering on behalf of others not only challenged the prosperity teaching of his opponents, it also challenges much of the teachings of contemporary prosperity-gospel movements. One of the central tenets of the prosperity gospel is the belief that God wills the financial and material prosperity of every Christian.4 Individual prosperity, rather than sacrifice on behalf of others, is presented as God’s will and evidence of God’s approval of one’s discipleship and ministry. Suffering and affliction are often presented as evidence of living outside of God’s will and power.
Like the afflictions of many oppressed people, the afflictions endured by Paul and his colleagues were so great he felt they would die; however, he placed his hope and confidence in God, who raised Jesus from the dead. It was this hope and confidence in God’s resurrection power that enabled Paul to endure afflictions for the well-being of others. It was also this hope that enabled and continues to enable African Americans such as Sojourner Truth, Harriet Tubman, Martin Luther King Jr., and countless other celebrated and uncelebrated men, women, and children to sacrifice and endure afflictions for the liberation and well-being of poor and oppressed people.
1:12–2:13, A Canceled Visit to Corinth
In 1 Corinthians 16:5–7, Paul promised to visit and spend time with the Corinthians after passing through Macedonia. Something, however, caused Paul to change his travel plans, which apparently gave rise to accusations regarding Paul’s integrity. Paul was accused of vacillating, and here he gives his version of what happened and explains why he changed his travel plans.
1:12–22, Defending His Initial Intentions
Paul’s authority, integrity, and credibility are primary topics of discussion throughout 2 Corinthians. Despite accusations questioning his integrity, Paul emphasizes his genuine concern for the Corinthians. By claiming that his “boast” is the integrity and “sincerity” of his conduct toward the Corinthians, Paul introduces the idea of “boasting” and “sincerity” as a way of foreshadowing his condemnation of the boasting of his opponents (chaps. 10–13). Regarding his opponents, Paul claims that they “boast in outward appearance and not in the heart” (5:12). He also writes, “For we are not peddlers of God’s word like so many; but as persons of sincerity, as persons sent from God, we are speaking in Christ before God” (2:17).
Paul suggests that while his swindling and insincere opponents behave and boast according to the standards of “earthly wisdom,” his behavior among the Corinthians has been from the heart out of “godly sincerity.” Paul’s condemnation of “earthly wisdom” is also found in 1 Corinthians. According to Paul, earthly wisdom is associated with eloquent preaching and outward appearances (1 Cor 1:17–2:13; 3:18–20). All too often, eloquent preaching and flashy appearances are the aspirations and trademarks of many preachers. While some Christians may be impressed by this, Paul argues that sincerity and selfless concern for others are true signs of genuine ministerial authority and integrity.
Paul asserts that his boast and the proof of his apostleship was not the eloquence of his sermons but rather his commitment to and sacrifice on behalf of the Christian communities he had established (cf. Phil 2:16; 1 Thess 2:19). On the day of judgment, he will boast and take pride in the Corinthian congregation, a community that resulted from his labor—not the labor of his opponents, who are trying to boast and take credit for his labor (10:13–16). Likewise, the boast of the Corinthian community will lie in their connection with and loyalty to Paul, not their connection and loyalty to flashy apostles who had nothing to do with establishing them. Mutual pride and respect between preachers and congregations are signs of the grace of God at work within a Christian community.
Contrary to the accusations, Paul’s failure to visit the Corinthians was not a sign of vacillation or a lack of faithfulness. Just as the Jesus Paul and his coworkers proclaim is the demonstration of God’s faithfulness, so they—through their faithfulness to this Jesus and their sacrifices on behalf of the Corinthians—are a demonstration of God’s faithfulness to them (Paul later accuses his opponents of proclaiming “another Jesus”—2 Cor 11:4; cf. Gal 1:6–7). According to Paul, every promise of God is fulfilled through Jesus, and, since God established Paul in Jesus and anointed him by giving him God’s Spirit, the promises of God to the Corinthians are fulfilled through Paul.
1:23–2:13, A Painful Visit and a Tearful Letter
Continuing his theme of sincere concern for the Corinthians, Paul asserts that his failure to visit the Corinthians was motivated by his love for them. Although Paul was an itinerant minister, he understood himself as working with, for, and on behalf of all the congregations he served. Itinerant ministers who are assigned to churches by bishops or who move from one church to another for other reasons sometime treat congregations as stepping stones to larger congregations or even to becoming a bishop. A minister’s main priority, however, is the well-being of the congregations she or he serves, not their own ministerial advancement.
Not only does a minister have a responsibility to the congregation, but the congregation also has a responsibility to the minister. Each is accountable to the other. Paul had made an unplanned visit to Corinth before his trip to Macedonia. This emergency visit was possibly in response to news that the Corinthians were being influenced by Christian leaders who were challenging Paul’s authority and leadership. Apparently, someone in the congregation insulted Paul during this visit. Although the nature of the insult is unclear, it was obviously offensive to Paul and led him to cut the visit short and write a “tearful” letter to the community. Some scholars have suggested that 2 Corinthians 10–13 is part of this tearful letter. According to Paul, his objective was not to punish the Corinthians or to cause them pain but rather to convey his love for them and his disappointment at how they had mistreated him (cf. 7:8–13).
To avoid another potentially painful visit, Paul decided to go on to Macedonia without visiting the Corinthians. Paul journeyed to Troas on his way to Macedonia. While Paul’s missionary outreach was successful in Troas, the experience was overshadowed by the anxiety of not knowing how his tearful letter had been received by the Corinthians. He left Troas, therefore, and continued to Macedonia to await news from Titus (2:12–13). While Paul was in Macedonia, Titus returned from Corinth with news that Paul’s letter had been well received and resulted in repentance among the Corinthians (7:5–13a).
Paul most likely composed 2 Corinthians (or at least parts thereof) in Macedonia after receiving the good news from Titus. The community responded to Paul’s tearful letter by severely punishing the one who had insulted Paul. While it is unclear if Paul initially instructed the community to punish the offender in this manner (2:9), Paul considered the punishment too severe and encouraged the community to reaffirm its love for the offender by forgiving and consoling him.
2:14—7:16, Paul’s Apostolic Ministry
In this section, Paul defends the legitimacy of his apostolic ministry. Virtually all of Paul’s letters reveal that his apostleship was constantly being challenged. The Greek word apostolos (apostle) means “one who is sent.” An apostle was commissioned and sent by an authoritative figure. An apostle of Jesus, therefore, was commissioned and sent by Jesus. Paul’s opponents asserted that Jesus could not have commissioned and sent Paul because Paul had never met Jesus. Paul, however, claimed that both God and Jesus commissioned and sent him as a result of God revealing the resurrected Jesus to Paul (see Gal 1:1, 15–16; cf. Acts 9:1–22; 22:1–16; 26:9–18).
2:14–17, A Worthy Apostle and Minister
These verses seem to disrupt the flow of the previous section (Paul’s discussion of his journey to Macedonia continues at 7:5). The letter moves from anxiety to thanksgiving with no explanation. Paul alludes to the ceremonial procession of the Roman army after a victorious battle. In such a procession the army paraded captive prisoners through the streets, flaunting the strength of Rome and the weakness of the defeated enemy. Ironically, Paul compares himself and his apostolic coworkers to defeated enemies taken captive while resisting and fighting against Rome. Jesus, who proclaimed the kingdom of God rather than the kingdom of Rome, was stripped, beaten, paraded through the street, and publicly crucified. Challenging imperial powers by resisting and criticizing the social injustice of the status quo, while working for and advocating on behalf of oppressed people, usually results in persecution. However, it is often through public persecution that the knowledge and vision of Christ are spread because it is through the afflictions and suffering resulting from these persecutions that the faithfulness of Christ—revealed through Christ’s sacrifice for others—is dramatized and given ongoing meaning and significance. Throughout history, hundreds of thousands of Black and brown Christians in North America, Africa, South America, the Caribbean, Europe, and other parts of the globe have endured public lynchings, burnings, beatings, mutilation, and imprisonment following Christ and resisting imperial power and oppression. Through their suffering for the liberation of oppressed people, Christ’s ministry of sacrifice, resistance, and liberation is dramatized.5
Paul uses the language of “fragrance” and “aroma” because the terms refer to the odor of incense used in religious sacrifices. To critics, Paul’s life and message are absurd and represent nothing more than death, but to believers they represent life. Earlier Paul writes the Corinthians, “For the message about the cross is foolishness to those who are perishing, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God” (1 Cor 1:18). For Paul, the Christian life in general and the life of an apostle, in particular, should reflect the event that made such a life possible—the “cross of Christ” (i.e. the sacrifices of Christ on behalf of others). Paul writes to Christians in Galatia, “May I never boast of anything except the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Gal 6:14).
While Christianity should not be understood primarily as a religion of martyrdom, too often the Western Christian avoidance of sacrifice and the quest for prosperity and success overshadow the significance and meaning of the life, message, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Paul informed the Corinthians that the message of God through Christ is one of sacrifice and self-denial for the well-being of others. The resurrection of Jesus the Christ serves to legitimate the good news of the Christian proclamation, which is that the kingdom of this world is being replaced by the kingdom of God. The resurrection affirms that oppressive powers are unable to defeat the power of God at work in resistance against injustice, oppression, and exploitation. More than two hundred years of resistance contributed to the defeat of enslavement in America. Decades of resistance contributed to the defeat of Jim Crow and racial segregation. Decades of resistance in South Africa led to the defeat of apartheid, and the ongoing work of the #BlackLivesMatter movement continues to advance the cause of Black liberation.6 While it is easy to become disillusioned by the continued social and economic oppression of Black people around the globe, the resurrection of Jesus Christ and the successful struggles of Black people throughout the world attest to the fact that oppressive powers cannot prevail forever. “Weeping may linger for the night, but joy comes with the morning.” (Ps 30:5).
After describing the cost of apostleship, Paul makes it clear that it is he and his coworkers rather than his opponents who are “sufficient” (i.e., competent) to represent Christ and his ministry. Paul accuses his opponents of taking advantage of the Corinthians, and he criticizes the Corinthians for gladly welcoming such exploitation (11:19–21a). Those who deny and ignore Jesus’s life and message of resistance and sacrifice are nothing more than charlatans and “peddlers of God’s word,” who preach for profit and selfish gain.
3:1–18, Ministry of a New Covenant
Paul’s remarks about commending oneself are directed against his opponents. Unlike his opponents, who commend themselves (10:12) and carry letters of recommendation to and from the Corinthians, Paul and his coworkers endorsed their actions (4:2). Their actions speak louder than words because their actions demonstrate their commitment to and sacrifices on behalf of the ministry of God (6:3–10). The Corinthian community is Paul’s letter of recommendation. Paul does not need to commend himself because the fruit of his labor demonstrates the Lord’s commendation, which is far more important than any self-commendation (10:17–18).
Paul uses the analogy of writing as a way of introducing the idea of a “new covenant.” His reference to letters written on hearts is meant to echo the prophecy of Jeremiah regarding the new covenant the Lord will make with the house of Israel by writing the law on the people’s hearts (Jer 31:31–33). Paul considered himself and his coworkers to be ministers of this new covenant, which is not based upon written requirements but upon life in the Spirit. Written requirements are rigid and inflexible and promote death. The Spirit, however, is fluid and flexible and promotes life (cf. Rom 2:27–29; 7:6).
In light of some of the historical and even contemporary tensions between African American and Jewish communities, it is important to realize that Paul’s contrast is not between Jews and Gentiles or Christianity and Judaism.7 Paul never considered himself a “convert” to a new religion, and he never thought of himself as no longer being Jewish. Paul’s contrast is between allegiance to a written covenant, which promotes death and condemnation, and allegiance to the Spirit of God, which promotes life and justification. While the Black church has always been profoundly biblically based, African American Christians have rejected literal interpretations and allegiance to scriptures used to promote enslavement, Jim Crow, and other forms of racial oppression.8 Regarding racial oppression, the Black church has consistently demonstrated an understanding of the fact that a covenant based upon “the letter” kills. However, regarding the oppression of women, the church has often been quick to abandon the “new covenant” of the spirit, placing a veil over the minds of Christians and returning to the “old covenant” of the letter.9 The same is true when it comes to LGBTQIA+ issues. While the Black Church in America has a long history of support for progressive social justice issues, it tends to show considerably less support for LGBTQIA+ rights and same-sex marriage.10 Only by turning to the ministry of Christ are we able to abandon the covenant of the letter. Only by turning to the Lord, who is the Spirit, are we able to set aside the veil and the ministry of condemnation. Unquestioning obedience to a written code promotes death and condemnation. A covenant of the letter allows no room for freedom, but “where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is freedom.” While Scripture will always be important in the life of the church, ministers of the new covenant are called to be ministers of the Spirit, not the letter.11
4:1–6, Ministers of Jesus Christ
Paul makes it clear that participation in ministry is not based on what some people may think of you. Neither is it based upon credentials or even necessarily ability. Participation in ministry is based upon “sincerity” (1:12; 2:17; cf. 1 Cor 5:8) and God’s mercy. No one is a minister of God because they are qualified or more talented than others. It is only because of God’s mercy that one is afforded the opportunity of engaging in the ministry of revealing God’s glory. Realization of this fact contributes to the sincerity and humility with which one engages in ministry.
Despite the accusations and criticism made against Paul, he did not become discouraged. It did not matter that he was accused of being cunning (cf. 12:16) or trying to falsify God’s word (cf. 2:17). It did not matter that his opponents said, “his bodily presence is weak and his speech contemptible” (10:10), or that many of the Corinthians considered him inferior to the “super-apostles” (11:5–6; 12:11). Paul understood that it was not about him; instead, it is about “Jesus Christ as Lord,” and ministers as those who serve God and God’s people.
Faces of Roman Africa
Fig. 1. Funeral portrait of a young man. Egyptian-Roman period, mid-second century ce. Tempera on wood. From Fayum, Egypt. 31.6 x 20.6 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria. Photo: © Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY.
Fig. 2. Funeral portrait of a bearded man. Egyptian, Roman period, 125–250 ce. Encaustic wax painting on beech-wood. Musée des Beaux-Arts, Dijon, France. Photo: © Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY.
Fig. 3. Funeral portrait of a man. Fayum. Ca. 193–235 ce (Severan dynasty). Encaustic on wood, 33.0 x 18.5 cm. Invoice. P210(N2732). Louvre, Paris. Photo: Gérard Blot, © Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY.
Fig. 4. Mummy portrait of a young woman with gold earrings. Hawara, Egypt, first century ce. Encaustic, 32.5 x 21.8 cm. Inv. 10974. Aegyptisches Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Photo: © Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY.
Fig. 5. The Roman theater in Alexandria was a center of philosophical and literary culture, and home to the largest Jewish population in the Roman empire. Ethnicity, class, and religion were intertwined in complex ways: when some Jews sued for recognition as citizens in Alexandria in 38 ce, one of their motives was to be distinguished from the non-Greek population and thus freed, as Greek citizens were, from Roman taxes. Photo: © Art Resource, N.Y.
