The cherokee diaspora, p.32
The Cherokee Diaspora, page 32
53. PBP, I-III, 13–15, 211–12; Anderson, Brown, and Rogers, eds., PBP, IV-VI, 29–30.
54. PBP, I-III, 45; Giocchino Campese, “Beyond Ethnic and National Imagination: Toward a Catholic Theology of U.S. Immigration” in Religion and Social Justice for Immigrants, ed. Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 177–78.
55. Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson, “Beyond ‘Culture’: Space, Identity, and the Politics of Difference,” Cultural Anthropology 7, no. 1 (February 1992): 6–23; Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among the Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 197.
56. Gupta and Ferguson, “Beyond ‘Culture,’” 6–23; Tony Judt, “The Past Is Another Country: Myth and Memory in Postwar Europe,” Daedalus 121, no. 4 (Fall 1992): 83–118.
57. Yasmin Saikia, “Landscape of Identity: Transacting the Labels ‘Indian,’ ‘Assamese’ and ‘Tai-Ahom’ in Contemporary Assam,” Contemporary South Asia 10, no. 1 (March 2011): 73–93; Allaine Cerwonka, Native to the Nation: Disciplining Landscapes and Bodies in Australia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), 236.
58. Yael Zerubavel, Recovered Roots: Collective Memory and the Making of Israeli National Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), xvii.
59. Shari M. Huhndorf, Going Native: Indians in the American Cultural Imagination (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 165.
60. Zerubavel, Recovered Roots, 7, 22.
61. Cathryn McConaghy, “On Pedagogy, Trauma and Difficult Memory: Remembering Namatjira, Our Beloved,” The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education 32 (2003): 11–20; Christopher Schmidt-Nowara, “After ‘Spain’: A Dialogue with Josep M. Fradera on Spanish Colonial Historiography” in After the Imperial Turn: Thinking with and through the Nation, ed. Antoinette Burton (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 168; Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, “Nationalism and the Imagination,” Lectora 15 (2009): 75–98.
62. Nancy Marie Mithlo, “Blood Memory and the Arts: Indigenous Genealogies and Imagined Truths,” AICRJ 35, no. 4 (2011): 103–18. See also Dave Palmer, “Indigenous Young People and Victimhood,” Social Alternatives 18, no. 2 (April 1999): 52–56; Jeannie Wright, K.W. Steve Land, Sue Comforth, “Fractured Connections: Migration and Holistic Models of Counselling,” British Journal of Guidance and Counselling 39, no. 5 (November 2011): 471–96; Yolande Cohen, “The Migration of Moroccan Jews to Montreal: Memory, (Oral) History and Historical Narrative,” Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 10, no. 2 (July 2011): 245–62.
63. W. R. L. Smith, The Story of the Cherokees (Cleveland: The Church of God Pub. House, 1928), 13; Richard S. Kim, “Diasporic Politics and the Globalizing of America: Korean Immigrant Nationalism and the 1919 Philadelphia Korean Congress” in Asian Diasporas: New Formations, New Conceptions, ed. Rhacel Parrenas and Lok Siu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007), 221.
64. Daniel Heath Justice, “Beloved Woman Returns: The Doubleweaving of Homeland and Identity in the Poetry of Marilou Awaikta” in Speak to Me Words: Essays on Contemporary American Indian Poetry, ed. Dean Rader and Janice Gould (Tempe: University of Arizona Press, 2003), 76.
65. Gregory D. Smithers, Science, Sexuality, and Race in the United States and Australia, 1780s–1890s (New York and London: Routledge, 2009), 9; Teresia K. Teaiwa, “Native Thoughts: A Pacific Studies Take on Cultural Studies and Diaspora,” in Indigenous Diasporas and Dislocations, ed. Graham Harvey and Charles D. Thompson, Jr. (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005), 26.
66. An important study of homelands in Native American history is Douglas A. Hurt, “Defining American Homelands: A Creek Nation Example, 1828–1907,” Journal of Cultural Geography 21, no. 1 (2003): 19–43. On the concept of diasporic peoples being “traveling cultures” and re-planting their beliefs and institutions in diaspora see James Clifford, “Diasporas,” Cultural Anthropology 9, no. 3 (August 1994): 311, 318–19; Kevin Kenny, “Diaspora and Comparison: The Global Irish as a Case Study,” JAH 90, no 1 (June 2003): 134–62, esp. 159; Rogers Brubaker, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 28, no. 1 (2005): 1–19.
67. Jana Evans Braziel and Anita Mannur, “Nation, Migration, Globalization: Points of Contention in Diaspora Studies” in Theorizing Diaspora, ed. Jana Evans Braziel and Anita Mannur (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2003), 1.
68. Jasmin Habib, Israel, Diaspora, and the Routes of National Belonging (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004) 4.
69. C.L. Webster, “Prof. D.W.C Duncan’s Analysis of the Cherokee Language,” The American Naturalist 23, no. 273 (September 1889): 779; Justice, Our Fire Survives the Storm, 171; Stremlau, Sustaining the Cherokee Family, 118–19; Christopher Teuton, Cherokee Stories of the Turtle Island Liars’ Club (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 8; Thomas A. Tweed, Our Lady of the Exile: Diasporic Religion at a Cuban Catholic Shrine in Miami (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 86; Devesh Kapur, Diaspora Development and Democracy: The Domestic Impact of International Migration from Indian (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 37; Ellen Cushman, The Cherokee Syllabary: Writing the People’s Perseverance (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011), 88.
70. Leonard Thompson and Howard Lamar, “Comparative Frontier History” in The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared, ed. Leonard Thompson and Howard Lamar (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981), 7; Pekka Hämäläinen, The Comanche Empire (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 8; Pekka Hämäläinen and Samuel Truett, “On Borderlands,” JAH 98, no. 2 (September 2011): 338.
ONE. The Origins of the Cherokee Diaspora
1. Duane Champagne, “Symbolic Structures and Political Change in Cherokee Society,” JCS 8, no. 2 (Fall 1983): 87–96; Michael Morris, “The High Price of Trade: Anglo-Indian Trade Mistakes and the Fort Loudoun Disaster,” JCS 17 (1996): 3.
2. Duane King, “Introduction” in The Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History, ed. Duane King (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), xiii; Tom Hatley, “Cherokee Women Farmers Hold Their Ground” in Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, rev. ed., eds. Gregory A. Waselkov, Peter H. Wood, and Tom Hatley (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 325.
3. July 2, 1737, William Byrd Letterbook, 1736/7, March 20–July 20, Mss5:2 B9966:4, VHS; Russell Thornton, The Cherokees: A Population History (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 63–65; Theda Perdue and Michael Green, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears (New York: Penguin, 2007), xiv; Tyler Boulware, “The Effect of the Seven Years’ War on the Cherokee Nation,” EAS 5, no. 2 (Fall 2007), 395–426.
4. See the introduction of this book for a summation of the Cherokee clan system.
5. James Adair, History of the American Indian (1775) in Voices of the Old South: Eyewitness Accounts, 1528–1681, ed. Alan Gallay (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994), 55–56; Henry Thompson Malone, Cherokees of the Old South: A People in Transition (1956; repr. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010), 24–25; PBP, I-III, 215; PBP, IV-VI, 432; 446; John R. Finger, The Eastern Band of the Cherokees, 1819–1900 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 3–4; William G. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 11–12; Robert J. Conley, The Cherokee Nation: A History (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005), 25; Thornton, The Cherokees, 23–25.
6. Neal Salisbury, “The Indians’ Old World: Native Americans and the Coming of Europeans,” WMQ, 3rd Series, 53, no. 3 (July 1996): 445–47; McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence, 7; Malone, Cherokees of the Old South, ch. 1; Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Cultural Change, 1700–1835 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 8–9; Amy H. Sturgis, The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007), 68.
7. Christopher B. Rodning, “Reconstructing the Coalescence of Cherokee Communities in Southern Appalachia” in Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, 1540–1760, ed. Robbie Ethridge and Charles Hudson (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2002), 160–66.
8. Marvin T. Smith, “Aboriginal Population Movements in the Postcontact Southeast” in Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, ed. Ethridge and Hudson, 7–8.
9. Israel Shreve Diary, CL 1: 51–53. Quotation is from p. 53. See also William E. McGoun, “Adoption of Whites by 18th Century Cherokees,” JCS 9, no. 1 (Spring 1984): 37–42.
10. “Father and Mother” to Agnes and James Lock, October 22, 1774, Robert McCallen Papers, CL, Box 47, Folder 33. See similarly Andrew Burnaby, Travels through the Middle Settlements in North America (London: T. Payne, 1775), 58; John Filson, The Discovery, Purchase and Settlement, of Kentucke (Wilmington: Printed by James Adams, 1784), 57, 63.
11. PBP, I-III, 14–15; Clara Sue Kidwell, “Indian Women as Cultural Mediators,” Ethnohistory 39, no. 2 (Spring 1992): 97–107, esp. 102; Norma Tucker, “Nancy Ward, Ghighau of the Cherokees,” GHQ 53, no. 2 (June 1969): 192–200; Tiya Miles, “‘Circular Reasoning’: Recentering Cherokee Women in the Antiremoval Campaigns,” AQ 61, no. 2 (June 2009): 221–43.
12. Champagne, “Symbolic Structures and Political Change in Cherokee Society,” 87.
13. Lynne P. Sullivan and Christopher B. Rodning, “Gender, Tradition, and the Negotiation of Power Relationships in Southern Appalachian Chiefdoms” in The Archeology of Traditions: Agency and History Before and After Columbus, ed. Timothy R. Pauketat (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), 108–10; David Hally, King: The Social Archeology of a Late Mississippian Town in Northwestern Georgia (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2008), 18; Robbie Ethridge, From Chicaza to Chickasaw: The European Invasion and the Transformation of the Mississippian World, 1540–1715 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 3–4.
14. Hally, King, 10.
15. Dixie Ray Haggard, “Internalizing Native American History: Comprehending Cherokee and Muscogulge Identities,” Indigenous Nations Studies Journal 1, no. 2 (Fall 2000): 14. See also Christopher B. Rodning and Amber M. VanDerwarker, “Revisiting Coweeta Creek: Reconstructing Ancient Cherokee Lifeways in Southwestern North Carolina,” Southeastern Archeology 21, no. 1 (Summer 2002): 6; Hally, King, 22.
16. Tyler Boulware, Deconstructing the Cherokee Nation: Town, Region, and Nation among Eighteenth-Century Cherokees (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2011), 2–3, 10; Rodning, “Reconstructing the Coalescence of Cherokee Communities in Southern Appalachia,” 172.
17. Earl of Egremont to Gov. Boone, August 7, 1762, Fol. 288, CO 5/214, Entry Book of Letters and Dispatches, 1759–1763, TNS; Letter from Upper Creeks to Gov. Johnson, May 16, 1766, Fol. 15, CO 5/67, Original Correspondence Secretary of State, Indian Affairs, 1766–1767. Carolyn T. Foreman, Indians Abroad, 1493–1938 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1943); Alden T. Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain, 1500–1776 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), Chs. 7–8.
18. John E. Worth, “Spanish Missions and the Persistence of Chiefly Power” in The Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, ed. Ethridge and Hudson, 61–62; R. David Edmunds, “Native Americans, New Voices: American Indian History, 1895–1995,” AHR 100, no. 3 (June 1995): 733; Wilma Dunaway, “Incorporation as an Interactive Process: Cherokee Resistance to Expansion of the Capitalist World-System, 1560–1763,” Sociological Inquiry 66, no. 4 (November 1996): 457 (“ethnic reorganizations”); Boulware, “The Effects of the Seven Years’ War on the Cherokee Nation,” 397; Hatley, The Dividing Paths, 13, 82.
19. Hatley, Dividing Paths, 161; Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settling of North America (New York: Penguin, 2001), 228–29.
20. Dunaway, “Incorporation as an Interactive Process,” 461–63; Boulware, “The Effect of the Seven Years’ War on the Cherokee Nation,” 398; Finger, The Eastern Band of Cherokees, 6; McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence, 17–18, 27, 29; Hatley, Dividing Paths, 155–60.
21. Cherokees. Headman Copy of a Talk to Capt. Raymond Demere, Fort Prince George September 18, 1756, Box 2, William Henry Lyttelton Papers, 1730–1806, CL; Walter Alves Cy to Cherokees, Copy of portions of land deeds giving extent of Kentucky, lands granted to Richard Henderson and Company (Transylvania Company) by the Cherokees by the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals, March 1775, Native American History Collection, 1689–1921, Box 1, CL.
22. The Annual Biography and Obituary, for the Year 1819, vol. 3 (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1819), 163.
23. The Annual Biography and Obituary, 3: 164.
24. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence, 9.
25. James Mooney, James Mooney’s History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees (1891, 1900; repr., Fairview, NC: Bright Mountain Books, 1992), 229; Horatio Hale, Indian Migrations: As Evidenced by Language (Chicago: Jameson and Morse, Printers, 1883), 3–11; Haggard, “Internalizing Native American History,” 18; Dawn E. Bastian and Judy K. Mitchell, Handbook of Native American Mythology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 114–15; James T. Carson, “Ethnogeography and the Native American Past,” Ethnohistory 49, no. 4 (Fall 2002): 773, 777, 782.
26. This was, and remains, the view of Keetoowah Cherokees. See Georgia Rae Leeds, The United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians in Oklahoma (New York: Peter Lang, 1996), 4–5; Haggard, “Internalizing Native American History,” 18.
27. Heidi M. Altman and Thomas N. Belt, “Reading History: Cherokee History through a Cherokee Lens,” NS I (2008): 91; Conley, The Cherokee Nation, 7.
28. Thornton, The Cherokees, 8–9.
29. Thornton, The Cherokees, 6–7.
30. William Bartram, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, the Cherokee Country, the Extensive Territories of the Muscogulges, or Creek Confederacy, and the Country of the Chactaws (Philadelphia: Printed by James and Johnson, 1791) in William Bartram on the Southeastern Indians, ed. Gregory A. Waselkov, Kathryn E. Holland Bruand (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 140.
31. Bartram, Travels, 141.
32. Vicki Rozema, ed., Cherokee Voices: Early Accounts of Cherokee Life in the East (Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair, Publishing, 2006), 95.
33. Traditions of the Cherokees, John Howard Payne Papers, 1794–1841, vol. 1, Ayer Ms. 689, NL, 14.
34. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois: Or, Contributions to American History, Antiquities, and General Ethnology (New York: Bartlett and Welford, 1846), 359.
35. Altman and Belt, “Reading History,” 93. See also Schoolcraft, Notes on the Iroquois, 360; Fogleson, “Who Were the Ani-Kutani?” 255–63.
36. See for example the 1755 report detailing the arrival of twelve Cherokee warriors at the home of Pennsylvania’s governor as they returned to Cherokee Country after fighting the “French Indians.” Samuel Hazard, ed., Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, From the Organization to the Termination of the Proprietary Government, vol. 6 (Harrisburg: Theo. Fenn, 1851), 276. See also Paul Demere to William H. Lyttelton, October 11, 1757, Box 6, Lyttelton Papers, CL.
37. David H. Corkran, The Cherokee Frontier: Conflict and Survival, 1740–62 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 28–29; W. Stitt Robinson, James Glen: From Scottish Provost to Royal Governor of South Carolina (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996), 90; Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 186.
38. Willinawa’s Talk, October 9, 1757, Box 6, Lyttelton Papers, CL. See also Malone, Cherokees of the Old South, 13–14; Michael P. Morris, The Bringing of Wonder: Trade and the Indians of the Southeast, 1700–1783 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999), 120; Hatley, Dividing Path, 160.
39. Willinawa’s Talk, October 9, 1757.
40. General Amherst Report, October 22, 1759, T1/389/76–77, Treasury Board Papers and In-Letters, NTS. The Annual Register, or the View of the History, Politicks, and Literature, of the Year 1760 (London: R. and J. Dodsley in Pall-Mall, 1761), 234; Corkran, The Cherokee Frontier, 147.
41. Clement Reade to Robert Dinwiddie, April 9, 1757, in Amherst Papers, 1756–1763: The Southern Sector: Dispatches from South Carolina, Virginia and His Majesty’s Superintendent of Indian Affairs, ed. Edith Mays (Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, 1999), 7; Maryland Gazette, December 18, 1760, Lyman Copeland Draper Papers, 1 JJ 642–651, SHSW; Alexander Hewatt, An Historical Account of the Rise and Progress of the Colonies of South Carolina and Georgia, vol. 2 (London: Printed for Alexander Donaldson, 1779), 227; James C. Kelly, “Oconostota,” JCS 3, no. 4 (Fall 1978): 221–38; John Oliphant, Peace and War on the Anglo-Cherokee Frontier, 1756–63 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 86; Corkran, The Cherokee Frontier, 180–212; Douglas M. Wood, “‘I Have Now Made a Path to Virginia’: Outacite Ostenaco and the Cherokee-Virginia Alliance in the French and Indian War,” West Virginia History 2, no. 2 (Fall 2008): 31–60.
42. Archibald Montgomery to Amherst, May 24, 1760; James Grant to Jeffrey Amherst, January 17, 1761; Amherst to Col. Grant, August 1, 1761, Mays, Amherst Papers, 104, 176, 286.
43. Hewatt, An Historical Account, 2: 214; Malone, Cherokees of the Old South, 24; Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (New York: Vintage, 2000), 72, 459; Oliphant, Peace and War, 24, 70–71, 119. The quote “pick up the hatchet” is at 88; Jill Norgen, The Cherokee Cases: Two Landmark Federal Decisions in the Fight for Sovereignty (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003), 32–33; Susan C. Powers, Art of the Cherokee: Prehistory to the Present (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007), 74; Fay A. Yarbrough, Race and the Cherokee Nation: Sovereignty in the Nineteenth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 15.
44. In a very small number of cases, some Cherokee people reportedly migrated in a southeasterly direction toward Spanish Florida. See John T. Juricek, “The Westo Indians,” Ethnohistory 11, no. 2 (Spring 1964): 146, 152; Patrick Riordan, “Finding Freedom in Florida: Native Peoples, African Americans, and Colonists, 1670–1816,” FHQ 75, no. 1 (Summer 1996): 24–43.
