Dark continent, p.51
Dark Continent, page 51
44. Quoted in National Socialism: Basic Principles, Their Application by the Nazi Party’s Foreign Organization, and the Use of Germans abroad for Nazi Aims (Washington, DC, 1943), p. 70
45. P. Stirk, “Authoritarian and national socialist conceptions of nation, state and Europe,” in Stirk (ed.), European Unity in Context: The Inter-War Period (London, 1989), pp. 125–48
46. J. Herz, “The National Socialist doctrine of international law and the problems of international organization,” Political Science Quarterly, 44: 4 (December 1939), pp. 536–54; also D. Diner, “Rassistisches Völkerrecht. Elemente einer nationalsozialistischen Weltordnung” in his Weltordnungen: Über Geschichte und Wirkung von Recht und Macht (Frankfurt, 1993), pp. 77–124
47. C. A. Macartney, op. cit., foreword to 2nd (1934?) edn; W. Friedmann, “The disintegration of European civilisation and the future of international law,” Modern Law Review (December 1938), pp. 194–214
48. Adenauer in H. Stoecker (ed.), German Imperialism in Africa (London, 1986), p. 323; D. Glass, Population Policies and Movements (London, 1940), p. 220
49. G. Rochat, Guerre italiane in Libia e in Ethiopia: Studi militari, 1921–1939 (Padua, 1991)
50. G. W. Baer, Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia and the League of Nations (Stanford, Calif., 1967), pp. 296–7
51. G. Bernardini, “The origins and development of racial anti-semitism in Fascist Italy,” Journal of Modern History, 49 (September 1977), pp. 431–53
52. Baer, op. cit., p. 56; J. Delarue, “La guerra d’Abissinia vista dalla Francia: le sue ripercussioni nella politica interna,” in A. del Boca (ed.), Le guerre coloniali del fascismo (Bari, 1991), pp. 317–39; E. Weber, “France,” in Rogger and Weber, op. cit., p. 97
53. Cited in R. Schlesinger, Federalism in Central and Eastern Europe (New York, 1945), pp. 457–8
54. “Politics and right,” tr. from Europaïsche Revue, January 1941, in US Department of State, National Socialism, op. cit., pp. 471–7
55. A. J. P. Taylor, The Origins of the Second World War (London, 1961), passim
56. W. Schmokel, Dreams of Empire: German Colonialism, 1919–1945 (New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press, 1964); Stoecker, op. cit.; G. L. Weinberg, “German colonial plans and policies, 1938–42,” in his World in the Balance (London, 1981), pp. 96–136
57. J. S. Huxley and A. C. Haddon, We Europeans: A Survey of “Racial” Problems (London/New York, 1936), pp. 13, 132, 236; more generally, E. Barkan, The Retreat from Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars (Cambridge, Eng., 1992)
58. Cited by P. Kluke, “Nationalsozialistische Europaideologie,” Vierteljahreshefte fur Zeitgeschichte, 3: 3 (1955), pp. 240–69
3: HEALTHY BODIES, SICK BODIES
1. P. Corsi, The Protection of Mothers and Children in Italy (Rome, 1938), p. 3; M. Hirschfeld, Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges, ii (Leipzig, 1930), p. 437
2. A. Pfoser, “Verstörte Manner und emanzipierte Frauen,” in F. Kadrnoska (ed.), Aufbruch und Untergang: Osterreichische Kultur zwischen 1918 und 1938 (Vienna, 1981); R. J. Sieder, “Behind the lines: working-class family life in wartime Vienna,” in R. Wall and J. Winter (eds.), The Upheaval of War: Family, Work and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 109–38
3. S. Pedersen, Family, Dependence and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France, 1914–1945 (Cambridge, Eng., 1993), p. 129
4. M. L. Roberts, Civilization without Sexes: Reconstructing Gender in Postwar France (Chicago, 1994), pp. 70, 125
5. W. Z. Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917–1936 (Cambridge, Eng., 1993), chs. 1, 3
6. Cited in T. Verveniotis, “I thesmothetisi tou dikaiomatos tis psifou ton gynaikon apo ton elliniko antistasiako kinima (1941–1944),” Dini: Feministiko periodiko, 6 (1993), pp. 180–95 (p. 181)
7. Constitution cited by D. Keogh and F. O’Driscoll, “Ireland,” in T. Buchanan and M. Conway (eds.), Political Catholicism in Europe, 1918–1965 (Oxford, 1996), p. 292
8. Hanna Hacker, “Staatsburgerinnen” in Kadrnoska, op. cit., pp. 225–66; V. de Grazia, How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922–1945 (Berkeley/Los Angeles, 1992), p. 25; Goldman, op. cit., chs. 5–6
9. J. M. Winter, “The fear of population decline in western Europe, 1870–1940,” in R. W. Hiorns (ed.), Demographic Patterns in Developed Societies (London, 1980), 178–81; P. Ogden and M.-M. Huss, “Demography and pro-natalism in France in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,” Journal of Historical Geography, 8:3 (1982), pp. 283–98; S. Weiss, “Wilhelm Schallmeyer and the logic of German eugenics,” Isis, 77 (March 1986), p. 45; C. Pagliano, “Scienza e stirpe: eugenica in Italia (1912–1939),” Passato e presente (1984), pp. 61–97
10. M.-M. Huss, “Pronatalism and the popular ideology of the child in wartime France: the evidence of the picture postcard,” in Wall and Winter, op. cit., pp. 329–69; C. Usborne, “Pregnancy is the woman’s active service,” in Wall and Winter, ibid., pp. 389–416
11. D. Glass, Population Policies and Movements in Europe (Oxford, 1940), pp. 84, 152, 274; Corsi, op. cit., p. 4
12. Mussolini cited in de Grazia, op. cit., p. 41; W. Schneider, Quantity and Quality: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in 20th Century France (Cambridge, 1990), p. 139; Pedersen, op. cit.
13. R. Bridenthal, “ ‘Professional housewives’: stepsisters of the women’s movement,” in R. Bridenthal, A. Grossmann and M. Kaplan (eds.), When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany (New York, 1984), pp. 153–74
14. Goldman, op. cit., pp. 288–89
15. De Grazia, op. cit., p. 55; Schneider, op. cit., p. 120; G. McCleary, “Prewar European population policies,” The Millbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, pp. 104–20; Glass, op. cit., pp. 282–4
16. M. Nash, “Pronatalism and motherhood in Franco’s Spain,” in G. Bock and P. Thane (eds.) Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of European Welfare States, 1880s-1950s (London/New York, 1991), p. 169
17. Glass, op. cit., pp. 45–50
18. A. Hackett, “Helene Stocker: leftwing intellectual and sex reformer,” in Bridenthal, Grossmann and Kaplan (eds.), When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany (New York, 1984), pp. 153–74
19. Glass, op. cit., conclusion; L. Thompson, “Lebensborn and the eugenics policy of the Reichsfuhrer-SS,” Central European History, 4 (1971), pp. 54–77
20. A. Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks (London, 1971), p. 242
21. J. Lewis, The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900–1939 (London, 1980), pp. 30–33; de Grazia, op. cit., pp. 63–5
22. J. Lewis, “Red Vienna, socialism in one city, 1918–1927,” European Studies Review, 13: 3 (July 1983), pp. 335–54; B. Schwan, Städtebau und Wohnungswesen der Welt: Town Planning and Housing throughout the World (Berlin, 1935), pp. 303–4; A. Lees, Cities Perceived: Urban Society in European and American Thought, 1820–1940 (Manchester, 1985), p. 272
23. F. Smejkal et al., Devetsil: the Czech Avant-Garde of the 1920s and 1930s (Oxford, 1990), p. 46
24. Lees, op. cit., 272; Schwan, op. cit.
25. G. Jones, Social Hygiene in Twentieth Century Britain (London/Sydney, 1986)
26. Eugenics, Genetics and the Family, i (Scientific Papers of the Second International Congress of Eugenics) (Baltimore, Md, 1923), p. 1
27. D. Kirk, Europe’s Population in the Interwar Years (Princeton, NJ, 1946), pp. 10–33; A. Keith, An Autobiography (London, 1950), pp. 552–3; T. Kalikow, “Konrad Lorenz’s ethological theory: explanation and ideology, 1938–1943,” Journal of the History of Biology, 16 (1983), pp. 39–73; A. Funk, Film und Jugend: Eine Untersuchung über die Psychischen Wirkungen des Films im Leben der Jugendlichen (Munich, 1934)
28. Lees, op. cit., p. 275
29. D. Horn, Social Bodies: Science, Reproduction and Italian Modernity (Princeton, NJ, 1994), p. 103
30. Churchill cited in D. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York, 1985), p. 99
31. H. Laughlin, “The present status of eugenical sterilization in the United States,” in Eugenics in Race and State (Baltimore, Md, 1923), p. 290; J. Noakes, “Nazism and eugenics: the background to the Nazi sterilization law of 14 July 1933,” in R. J. Bullen et al. (eds.), Ideas into Politics: Aspects of European History, 1880–1950 (London, 1983), p. 80
32. M. E. Kopp, “Eugenic sterilization laws in Europe,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 34 (September 1937), pp. 499–504; Jones, op. cit., pp. 88–97; B. Mallet, “The reduction of the fecundity of the socially inadequate,” in A Decade of Progress in Eugenics (Baltimore, Md, 1934), pp. 364–8
33. See esp. Burleigh and Wippermann, op. cit.
34. Cited by Burleigh and Wippermann, op. cit., p. 177
35. Sir Harry Johnston, “Empire and anthropology,” The Nineteenth Century and After (August 1908); B. Müller-Hill, Murderous Science: Elimination by Scientific Selection of Jews, Gypsies and Others: Germany, 1933–1945 (Oxford, 1988)
36. Schneider, op. cit., pp. 228, 242–54
37. Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars (Cambridge, Eng., 1992)
38. J. S. Huxley and A. C. Haddon, We Europeans: A Survey of “Racial” Problems (London/New York, 1936), p. 13
39. Ibid., pp. 132, 136; see also G. M. Morant, The Races of Central Europe (London, 1939), pp. 9,15
40. M. Kohn, The Race Gallery: The Revival of Scientific Racism (London, 1995)
4: THE CRISIS of CAPITALISM
1. Cited in D. Peukert, “The lost generation: youth unemployment at the end of the Weimar Republic,” in R. J. Evans and D. Geary (eds.), The German Unemployed (London, 1987), p. 180
2. S. Asch, The Calf of Paper (London, 1936), p. 24
3. Cited in A. Orde, British Policy and European Reconstruction after the First World War (Cambridge, 1990), p. 178
4. ibid., p. 310
5. ibid., p. 143
6. Priestley cited in C. Waters, “J. B. Priestley” in Mandler and Pedersen (eds.), op. cit., p. 211
7. Cited in R. Boyce, British Capitalism at the Crossroads, 1919–1932: A Study in Politics, Economics and International Relations (Cambridge, Cambs., 1987), pp. 115–16
8. Cited by Orde, op. cit., p. 317; Boyce, op. cit., p. 108; also Boyce, “British capitalism and the idea of European unity between the wars,” in P. M. Stirk (ed.), European Unity in Context: The Interwar Period (London, 1989), pp. 65–84
9. O. Spengler, Man and Technics (New York, 1932), pp. 101–2
10. Cited in R. Skidelsky, Politicians and the Slump: The Labour Government of 1929–31 (London, 1967), p. 244
11. Cited in Boyce, op. cit., pp. 172–3
12. D. Kazamias, Sta ftocha chronia tis dekaetias tou’30 (Athens, 1997), p. 71; M. Jahoda, P. Lazarsfeld and H. Zeisel, Marienthal: The Sociography of an Unemployed Community, cited by R. Overy, The Interwar Crisis, 1919–1939 (London, 1994), p. 113
13. C. Webster, “Hungry or Healthy Thirties?,” History Workshop Journal, 13 (spring 1982), pp. 110–29; M. Mitchell, “The effects of unemployment on the social condition of women and children in the 1930s,” History Workshop Journal, 19 (spring 1985), pp. 105–23
14. The most reliable figures are in S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, “Population,” in R. W. Davies, M. Harrison and S. G. Wheatcroft (eds.), The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 57–80; see also F. M. Wilson, In the Margins of Chaos: Recollections of Relief Work in and between Three Wars (London, 1944), p. 145
15. Cited in R. Pethybridge, One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forwards: Soviet Society and Politics in the New Economic Policy (Oxford, 1990), p. 143
16. Pethybridge, op. cit., p. 415
17. See M. Lewin, “The immediate background of Soviet collectivisation” in his The Making of the Soviet System (London, 1985), pp. 91–121; on numbers shot, see R. W. Davies, “Forced labour under Stalin: the archive revelations,” New Left Review, 214 (November/December 1995), pp. 62–80; see generally, R. Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (New York, 1986), esp. pp. 120–28
18. Cited in M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (London, 1989 edn), p. 240
19. Cited by M. Lewin, “ ‘Taking grain’: Soviet policies of agricultural procurements before the war,” in his Making of the Soviet System, op. cit., p. 166
20. ibid., pp. 142–77; V. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom: The Personal and Political Life of a Soviet Official (London, 1947), pp. 111, 130
21. Fainsod, op. cit., p. 248
22. Cited by G. Hosking, A History of the Soviet Union (London, 1985), p. 150
23. Cited by Bullock, op. cit., p. 311
24. L. Siegelbaum, “Masters of the shop floor: foremen and Soviet industrialisation,” N. Lampert and G. T. Rittersporn (eds.), Stalinism: Its Nature and Aftermath (London, 1992), pp. 127–56
25. L. R. Graham, The Ghost of the Executed Engineer: Technology and the Fall of the Soviet Union (Harvard, Mass., 1993), pp. 54–8
26. Davies, op. cit., p. 67
27. ibid.; J.-P. Depretto, “Construction workers in the 1930s,” in Lampert and Rittersporn, op. cit., p. 197
28. H.-H. Schröder, “Upward social mobility and mass repression: the Communist Party and Soviet society in the Thirties,” in Lampert and Rittersporn, op. cit., pp. 157–84
29. F. Furet, Le Passé d’une illusion (Paris, 1995), p. 474
30. See T. von Laue, Why Lenin? Why Stalin? (New York, 1971), p. 181; F. M. Leventhal, The Last Dissenter: H. N. Brailsford and His World (Oxford, 1985), p. 248
31. Cited in Boyce, op. cit., p. 314
32. ibid., p. 307
33. M. Mazower, Greece and the Inter-War Economic Crisis (Oxford, 1991), p. 315
34. But see S. Reich, The Fruits of Fascism: Postwar Prosperity in Historical Perspective (Ithaca, NY, 1990)
35. W. Murray, The Change in the European Balance of Power, 1938–39 (Princeton, NJ, 1984)
36. Cited in Steiner, op. cit., p. 91
37. M. Kele, Nazis and Workers: National Socialist Appeals to German Labor, 1919–1933 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1972), p. 178; D. Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933–1939 (New York, 1966), p. 53
38. Kele, op. cit., p. 205; B. F. Reilly, “Emblems of production: workers in German, Italian and American art during the 1930s,” in W. Kaplan (ed.), Designing Modernity: The Arts of Reform and Persuasion, 1885–1945 (London, 1995), pp. 287–315
39. A. Lyttelton, The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929 (Princeton, NJ, 1987), pp. 348–9
40. Cited in J. Noakes and G. Pridham (eds.), Nazism, 1919–1945, vol. 2: State, Economy and Society, 1933–1939 (Exeter, 1988 edn), pp. 373–4; see also: A. Lüdtke, “The ‘Honor of Labor’: industrial workers and the power of symbols under National Socialism,” in D. Crew (ed.), Nazism and German Society (London, 1994), pp. 67–110; F. L. Carsten, The German Workers and the Nazis (Aldershot, 1995); on Italian workers see T. Abse, “Italian workers and Italian Fascism,” in R. Bessel (ed.), Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts (Cambridge, Eng., 1996), pp. 40–61; comparative unemployment figures in B. Eichengreen and T. J. Hatton (eds.), Unemployment in International Perspective (Dordrecht, 1988), p. 7
41. P. Hayes, Industry and Ideology: IG Farben in the Nazi Era (Cambridge, 1987), p. 172; G. Toniolo, L’economia dell’Italia fascista (Rome, 1980), 266; Bullock, op. cit., pp. 181–2
42. R. Overy, Why the Allies Won (London, 1995), ch. 6
43. D. S. White, Socialists of the Front Generation, 1918–1945 (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 81
44. ibid., p. 128
45. ibid., p. 109
46. N. Mosley, Rules of the Game (London, 1982), p. 150
47. H. W. Arndt, The Economic Lessons of the 1930s (London, 1963 edn), p. 210
48. E. Hansen, “Hendrik de Man and the theoretical foundations of economic planning: the Belgian experience, 1933–1940,” European Studies Review, 8 (1978), pp. 235–57
49. Arndt, op. cit. (London, 1944 edn), p. 152
50. Cited by C. Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929–1939 (London, 1973), p. 261
51. Kalecki cited in J. Jackson, The Popular Front in France: Defending Democracy, 1934–38 (Cambridge, 1990), p. 174; see also, G. Ranki and J. Tomaszewski, “The role of the state in industry, banking and trade,” in M. C. Kaser and E. A. Radice (eds.), The Economic History of Eastern Europe, 1919–1975, vol. 2: Interwar Policy, the War and Reconstruction (Oxford, 1986), pp. 44–6
5: HITLER’S NEW ORDER, 1938–45
1. Cited by G. Therborn, “The autobiography of the twentieth century,” New Left Review, 214 (November/December 1995), p. 87
2. Cited by O. Bartov, Hitler’s Army: Soldiers, Nazis and War in the Third Reich (Oxford, 1992), pp. 130–31
3. Ministero degli Affari Esteri, I documenti diplomatici italiani, 9th series (1939–43), vol. 8 (Rome, 1986), p. 410: Luciolli to D’Ajeta, 14 March 1942; Mussolini’s reaction is noted in M. Muggeridge (ed.), Ciano’s Diary: 1939–1943 (London, 1947), pp. 448–9
4. R. G. Waldeck, Athene Palace (New York, 1942), p. 13
5. ibid., p. 14
6. P. Struye, L’Évolution du sentiment public en Belgique sous l’occupation allemande (Brussels, 1945), pp. 20, 30; M. Conway, Collaboration in Belgium: Léon Degrelle and the Rexist Movement, 1940–1944 (New Haven, Conn./London, 1993), p. 30; W. Warmbrunn, The Dutch under German Occupation, 1940–1945 (Stanford, Calif., 1963), pp. 130–35
7. M. Bloch, Strange Defeat (New York, 1968), pp. 149, 156–68; F. Bédarida, “Vichy et la crise de la conscience française,” in J.-P. Azéma and F. Bédarida, “Vichy et les Francais (Paris, 1992), pp. 77–96; de Chardin cited in J. Lukacs, The Last European War (New York, 1976), p. 515; Berlitz enrolments in R. Cobb, French and Germans, Germans and French (Hanover/London, 1983), p. 125
